Copyright ©1986-2008 by Heather Daveno

Historical Overview

Embroidery
Embroidery has been used as a form of embellishment since very ancient times. In the Neolithic world, simple embroidery was worked on wool, linen and hemp in mostly geometric abstract motifs, using needles made from bone, ivory or bronze. After the beginning of recorded history, embroidery was combined with paint as a textile embellishment. This process was revived during the fall of the Manchu government in the late 19th century, as fully embroidered garments became cost-prohibitive. I have seen this technique used on religious items and wall hangings, and have found that paint with embroidery outline and detail turns out a very satisfactory shoe or stage costume, with good effect and minimal time outlay.

By the T’ang Dynasty, considered the Golden Age of China, thousands of women were employed as seamstresses and embroideresses, and Chang An, then capitol of China, became a trade center for woven and embroidered textiles. By the Song Dynasty, embroidery embellished parasols, fans and shoes, as well as household items such a screens and bed coverlets were being produced. The Ming Dynasty saw the development of the ranking badges, worn on the front and back of robes by military and civilian officials and by extention, their wives. Many of the Imperial Dragon Robes that you see in museums also date from the late Ming Dynasty.

Silk
The discovery of silk is traditionally placed in China at 2646 BCE, although knife-cut silk cocoons have been found among artifacts dating from 3000 BCE. It is thought to have been discovered by the wife of the Yellow Emperor, Empress His-Ling-shi in the 27th century, when a mulberry cocoon she was studying, fell into a cup of tea and unraveled, revealing a single continuous strand that was hundreds of feet long(1).

Farmers who raised silk during the Ch'in Dynasty (221 BCE) were exempt from forced labor by royal edict, although household taxes from this period included “…one bolt of silk, three ounces of silk floss, or fity feet of hemp cloth”(2). By the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) the silk industry was well established and embroidery had been elevated to a fine art.

Silk became such a popular commodity that it became a form of currency in the 2nd century BC, and remained so for several centuries. During the 4th century, the price of a woman in Central Asia was 41 bolts of silk(3). Silk and embroidered pieces reached Syria, India, and the Roman Empire via the trade routes through Central Asia. Complex silk textiles, including jacquards, brocades and damasks reached Rome during this time, as did some silk worm eggs, sourced through Nestorian monks. By the first century CE, knowledge of these pieces had spread to most of the known world, and both China and Byzantium emerged as sericulture centers by the T’ang Dynasty(3). After the 12th century, cotton entered China from India, however, silk remained the more commonly used textile for embroidery.

Weaves
Textiles were first produced on backstrap looms. Undyed pieces were 45-50 cm wide by about 40 ft. long. Weaves included gauze and damask, and thread counts ranged from 16-200 per cm. The invention of the draw loom and the development of jacquards and brocades allowed patterns to be woven into the cloth. Common patterns included checks, diamonds, zig-zags, coins, clouds, dragons, lions, horses, flowers, birds and fish. Brocades were often over-embroidered to augment the woven patterns (a technique I now employ on my hats…)

During the Song Dynasty a variety of brocade and jacquard patterns were in common usage, including the following motif combinations:

• dragon and flowers
• dragon and phoenix
• dragons in medallions pursuing jewels (shows up in Byzantine textiles)
• pheasant and stork
• pearls and rice
• lotus and seeds
• cherries and cherry blossoms
• squares and medallions of white flowers on colored background
• lotus and tortoise
• tortoise and snake
• lion dogs and balls
• water weeds and fish
• tree peonies
• peacocks (shows up in Byzantine and European textiles)
• geese and clouds

Yarns
Silkworms were raised in the home. The Book of Rites describes the annual Springtime ritual where the empress and the women of her court took part in the gathering of mulberry leaves (upon which the silkworms fed), the harvesting of silkworm cocoons, and the reeling of silk. Mature cocoons were steamed, and the silk was reeled and spun into yarn before being dyed. Yarns for embroidery were hand twisted, ideally the yarn was slightly smaller than the needle's eye, so it wouldn't make a hole in the silk when drawn through. Multiple color yarns were spun in addition to solid colors.

Gold and silver stock was pounded into leaf, which was then sliced into narrow ribbons and rolled into yarn. Gold paper or gold painted papers were also used and were cheaper. Gold and silver yarns were always couched onto the surface of the textile as they were too fragile to draw repeatedly through the fabric.

Embroidery Tools

Needles
Embroidery needles averaged about an inch long and had round eyes. They were made of bone, ivory, copper, or bronze, depending on the technology of the time. Ivory needles continued to be used as late as the Ch'in Dynasty. I have found that needles of bone and ivory, although retaining a sharp point longer than other materials, are also coarser and more brittle. I much prefer bronze needles for Chinese embroidery as they have a smooth surface and are more pliable than modern steel needles, which decreases fingertip fatigue.

Frames
Embroidery frames appeared to have been used exclusively, and could accommodate large pieces of silk without wrinkling or damaging them. Frames were built proportionate to the size of the project. Embroidery hoops may have been used or smaller pieces of cotton or linen, but this technology appears to have been imported into China after the 18th century. There are techniques described in "The Art of the Oriental Embroidery" for attaching silks muslin backing strips, which are in turn attached to embroidery frames. I have also seen depictions of patterns for court robes being traced onto silk yardage, and the yardage being attached to the frame, and fully embroidered before the individual robe pieces are cut out. This technique makes much more sense to me, as it would have involved fewer steps and no muslin backing. Embroidery can also "shrink" a textile, so cutting a piece out after you have embroidered it would allow you to adjust the size of your pattern pieces before assembling your garment. Wise embroideresses factor in this shrinkage when drafting their garment pieces and embroidery patterns…

Embroidery Techniques

Pattern transfer techniques
Designs could be transferred in a number of ways. The powder and paste method was done by drawing the master design onto a piece of heavy paper, then cutting it into a stencil with a sharp blade. The stencil was then basted to a piece of silk. The stencil was dusted with oyster-shell powder using a wide brush. The stencil was then removed, and the powdered design left on the fabric was outlined using a fine watercolor brush and an oyster-shell and water paste. After the design had dried, any loose residue was removed and the silk was stretched onto the frame, ready to be embroidered.

A second paste transfer technique was the forerunner of our modern carbon transfer system. The master design was drawn onto very thin rice paper. The paper was then flipped over, and the design was traced over on the back of the paper with oyster-shell paste. When the past was dry, the paper was placed face up on to the fabric and secured. Using a wooden spatula and moderate pressure, the paper was burnished (rubbed). When the paper was removed, the oyster-shell paste pattern remained on the fabric.

My favorite technique was the transfer stitch method. The pattern was traced onto rice paper, which was secured to the fabric. The design was then stitched through the paper and fabric with running stitches. For designs that were to be outlined, the rice paper was torn away after the running stitches were in place. For solid work, the entire pattern was filled in before the remaining rice paper was torn away. This technique was useful on more delicate silks, as the rice paper padded the embroidery, acted as a stabilizer and also protected the surface of the silk while it was being handled. I use this method on most of my embroidery pieces, using pieces of recycled tissue paper instead of rice paper.

Embroidery stitches
Satin stitch appears to date from the Shang Dynasty (1523-1027 BCE). Appliqué and silverwork have been found in tombs in Mongolia from the Chou Dynasty (6th cen. BCE).

Textiles from Han Dynasty tombs show that the stitches used during this time period included (including the Chinese)(2):

	Chain stitch - also known as lock, loop or linking stitch, it is one of the oldet and most durable of stitches and was used by many cultures outside of Asia.
	Peking knot – called seed knot in early centuries and later known as Forbidden Stitch, when it was outlawed from embroidery factories in China for causing women to go blind in their extensive use of it.
	Couching – also called nail stitch, usually done with a heavy surface thread which is "nailed down" with a thinner thread, either the same color or in a contrasting color.
	Satin– also called flat stitch, charactherized by long stitches covering the entire width of the design element. Notto be confused with long and short stitch, which was developed later and allowed for complex shading.
	Stem (xian wen) – sometimes referred to as outline stitch and was often used to outline areas worked in satin stitch.
	Buttonhole stitch was used during the Han Dynasty as an applique stitch and to finish or bind raw edges of fabrics.

Couched loop, couched twist, applique and quilting stitches were also used during the Han Dynasty.

No new stitches appeared until the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Counted stitches (Florentine and petit-point) came into use during the Ch'ing Dynasty (1644-1912). There are also references to basketweave, and long and short stitch during this time (which looks similar to satin stitch but is more textural).

Motifs and their Symbolism
The motifs or designs often seen in Chinese textiles has evolved from several philosophies and concepts. The Chinese enjoy puns and plays on words, and often designs were used if their verbal sound or written character was similar to a quality or virtue. Hence, because the words for bat and happiness sound similar, bat became the symbol for happiness.

The Twelve Symbols of Authority, also called the Twelve Ornaments or the Ancient Symbols, were always incorporated into the emperor's robes to represent his symbolic royal domain over the universe. A story in the Book of Yu tells how Shun, the first legendary emperor of China, ordered Yu to "make clothing depicting the sun, moon, stars, mountain, dragon and pheasant, dyed in brilliant colors and added to dyed cloth to make garments." This edict evolved into the garment that became the official court garent of the Emperor, which was worn until the end of the Qin Dynasty in 1912. Those symbols are:

		Sun - heaven, intellectual enlightenment, sovereign on earth, male attributes. A red circle enclosing a three legged male phoenix, set over clouds. The three feet signify the masculine essence of the sun; the bird is also known as the Yu Hua, which often flies to earth to feed on the Plant of Immortality.

		Moon - home of the Hare who prepares the elixir of immortality with a mortar and pestle. Pale blue, surrounded by clouds, or greyish pink, over curling waves. Female attributes.

		Stars - three circles joined by 45 degree lines to form the eternal unity of sun, moon and earth. Sun, Moon and Stars combined were symbolic of knowledge gained through the understanding of nature.

		Mountains - earth, steadfastness and longevity, used often at center above the wave pattern which was embroidered in the twelve colors at the hem of court robes.

Dragon - the most imperial of the twelve symbols. The five-toed dragon is reserved for the Emperor and his heirs, four-toed for court officials, three-toed for lesser nobility. It is the emblem of strength, goodness, viligence and safeguard, and when used in tandem with the ax and pheasant, judicial powers of the court are implied. It is often depicted in tandem with the Flaming Pearl, symbolic of the eternal pursuit of wisdom. See "The Sacred Animals of China" for additional information.

		Pheasant - literary refinement, education. Depicted standing on a rock in the sea, facing the sun. It is sometimes used in place of the Phoenix, and as such, is considered an emblem of beauty and good fortune.

		Water weed - purity and adaptability to changing times.

		Fire – The Buddhist concepts of zeal, love of virtue, brilliance of spirit and intellect. Fire is sometimes used as a halo for fierce Buddhist deities. Fire also stands for danger, speed, anger, ferocity and lust.

		Ax - The emperor's power to inflict punishment, also seenby some as a symbol of warriors.The ax is also the emblem of matchmakers, due to the similiarity of the characters for ax and "to begin". The ax is also the symbol of Lu Pan, the God of Carpenters.

		Fu - developed from the pictograph for happiness, and symbolizes the emperor's responsibility to create a happy nation.

The Dragon and Phoenix have long been reserved for the Emperor and Empress, with variants reserved for ranking members of their household. To delineate rank among officials at court, the hereditary nobles of the 1st rank could not wear the sun, moon and stars, but could wear the remaining 9 symbols of authority. Officials of the 2nd and 3rd ranks could not wear sun, moon and stars, and additionally, mountains and dragons, but could wear the remaining symbols of authority. The pecking order in embroidered embellishments on court robes followed suite for the remaining official rankings.

During the Ming Dynasty this ranking system(4) evolved into more obvious identifiers for both military and civil service officials. Rank was marked by the button at the top of the hat, and embroidered patches sewn to the front and back of official court robes. Wives of both military and civil service officials wore similar patches to those of their husbands on formal occasions.

The Buddhist Eight Precious Things, also referred to as the Eight Treasures or the Eight Auspicious Signs, signify the spiritual attributes of the enlightened Buddha. In embroidery, painting and ceramics, They are often seen with ribbons (called fillets) either encircling them or weaving through the motif, which is thought to give them more magical power:

		Parasol - also called the Unbrella, a symbol of nobility that sheds the heat of desire. It also represents wholesom activity that preserves one from illness and obstacles.

		Conch - calls the people to prayer, also considered a symbol of royalty and victory. It represents the voice of Buddha that awakens disciples from the sleep of ignorance and urges them to take action to improve their welfare, and the welfare of others.

		Double Fish - happiness and utility, wealth and abundance, harmony, yin and yang. It is held that fish swim in pairs, so the Double Fish are also an emblem of the joy of union, and symbolic of freedom from restraint. Specific varieties of fish have their own symbolism - carp for perserverence, the sturgeon for literary eminence.

		Endless Knot -also called the Mystic Knot or Lover's Knot, symbolic of longevity, the path to happiness that knows neither beginning nor end, and the union of wisdom and method, and of wisdom and compassion. It also symbolizes the mutual dependence of religious doctrine and secular affairs.

		Canopy – respect, victory over religions. It shares similiar attributes to the Parasol. This symbol is also seen by some as a Victory Banner, symbolic of the victory of one's activities over obstacles and negativity, and the complete victory of Buddhist doctrine over harmful forces.

		Vase - believed to contain the elixir of heaven and immortality, the symbol of supreme intelligence triumphing over birth and death. You will always find a vase on Buddhist altars, as Buddha was quite fond of flowers.

		Wheel of Law, also called the Wheel of Dharma, Wheel of life, Wheel of Truth, Wheel of the Cosmos - representing the overwhelming effect Buddha's preaching has over superstition and delusion, in all times and in all realms, allowing one to experience the joy of liberation through wholesome deeds.

		Lotus - divine purity, summer and fruitfulness (as on offspring). It is thought to have come into Chinese symbology from the Hindu, where it figures prominently in one of the most recited prayers "om mani padme hum", meaning "O God of the Jewl on the Lotus (referring to Brahma), or my favorite, "May my soul be like the gemmeaus dew-drop, which lies on the lip of the lotus leaf, before it falls into the peaceful obscurity of the lake", a reference to entering Nirvana.It isalso the emblem of Ho Hsien-ku, one of the Eight Taoist Immortals.

The Eight Ordinary Symbols are linked to Confucian concepts and, like the Buddhist symbols, are often surrounded or interlaced with a fillet or ribbon to accentuate their power. They are:

		Pearl - believed to be able to grant wishes to the holder. It is also emblematic of genius in obscurity. I believe this evolved into the flaming pearl, symbolic of knowledge, often depicted as an item chased or held by the Dragon and the Lion.

		Coin - also called Cash, symbolic of wealth and prosperity. The cash was in use as currency as early as the 11th century BC, The round coin represented the the government, the center square represented government officials ability to have "no rugged corners" to annoy those they came in contact with.

		Lozenge - a symbol of victory

		Pair of Books - emblem of scholarly learning, among the most important of Confucian ideals.

		Painting - a closed lozenge, symbol of art and the Confucian ideal of refinement.

		Stone chime – honor and, musical accomplishment. Stone chimes were a percussion instrument made of hade or other stone, or bronze. No man's education was complete until he had acquired an expert knowledge of harmony.

		Rhino Horns - happiness. Rhino horn cups were used in ancient China as drinking vessels and were thought to reveal the presence of poison by sweating.

		Artemisia Leaf - a plant of good omen and prevention of disease.

Additional fllora and fauna in Chinese symbolism include but are by no means limited to:

		Plum blossoms - beauty and winter. As the first flower to bloom after winter, it symbolizes courage and hope. It is also a symbol of longeveity, due to a legend about an artist who nearly died of thirst while crossing a desert. In desperation, he painted a plum blossom so realistically, that every time he looked at it, his mouth watered, and it saved his life. Example is from a silk brocade robe.

		Pine - an evergreen and therefore regarded as a symbol of longevity and when combined with cyprus, is a metaphor for friends who remain constant in adversity. Shown at left is a Korean women's purse showing pine worked in "pine stitch".

		Bamboo - another emblem of longevity, due to its durability.. When combined with plum blossom and pine they are referred to as "the Three Friends". This example is from a 19th century women's robe and appears to be a woven brocade rather than an embroidery. The Plum Blossoms above are from the same robe.
		Peony - wealth and spring, riches and honor, and the symbol of masculine beauty. The Peony is also regarded as an omen of good fortune if it blooms profusely; if the plant dries up or the flowers fade suddenly, it is considered a harbinger of poverty or other disaster for the family of its owner. Shown here is an example of painted silk on a religious vestment made in China for export in the 18th century..

		Chrysanthemum - mid-autumn and pleasure, also the symbol of feminine beauty. The example shown here is from the center of an embroidered rondel on a Manchu women's robe. It appears to be worked entirely in Forbidden Knot, with outline done in white couching. The figures surrounding this blossom were worked in satin stitch. .

		Peach - also known as Fairy Fruit, symbolic of marriage and spring. In legend it was the food of the gods and is symbolic of immortality. Young children wore amulets of peach stones carved into the shape of a lock, to "lock them to life" and keep them safe from death. A spray of peach blossoms decorates the doorways of Chinese homes a New Years, to prevent evil from entering the house. This example is from a 17th century women's robe, and is worked in long and short stitch.

		Lion - valor and energy. Often shown playing with a ball or a flaming pearl, often mistaken for a fu-dog. Female lions are often shown with cubs. In Buddhist doctrine, the lion was viewed as the defender of the law and the protector of sacred buildings (which I think is why temple dogs were a species that were bred to look like lions). This example is from a 19th century wedding garment and is worked in long and short stitch, some sort of outline stitch, with the mane and tail couched in metalic gold.

		Butterfly – joy, summer, marital bliss and fidelity. Interestingly, this symbolism came from the story of Chuang Tzu, the philosopher who dreamed he was a butterfly, and found great joy in his dreams as he flitted from flower to flower, drinking sweet nectar. When he awoke, he wondered if he was a butterfly, dreaming that he was now a man. This example is the top flap of a 19th century women's purse, worked entirely in chain stitch.

		Bat - the character for bat and happiness are pronounced "fu". A symbol of joy when depicted in red, and sometimes mistaken for a butterfly in embroideries. Five bats joined in a circle symbolize the Five Blessings of old age, wealth, health, love of virtue and natural death. This example is from the same wedding robe as the Lion, and is worked in satin stitch on red silk.

Color Symbolism
The Five Colors of the Universe each represented a direction, element and an animal. Specific colors and/or shades were reserved for specific military and civilian ranks during some dynastic rules in both China and Mongolia:

• Red (south, fire, phoenix) was a sacred color in Mongolia, and the color of joy and festivals and weddings in China. In Buddhist doctrine, a red Lotus symbolizes the nature of the heart, encompassing the emotions of love, passion and compassion. Red could not be work for 27 months after the death of a parent. Pinks, peach, apricot and purples were considered shades of red.
• Yellow (center, earth) was sacred in both Mongolia and China and was reserved for monks and the Emperor. It is the color of measure and balance, eternal light and consummate harmony. Yellow clouds denote prosperity.
• Blue/green (east, wood, dragon) was reserved for the Prime Minister during the Song Dynasty and was the color of royalty and 1st, 2nd and 3rd degree officials during the Ming Dynasty. Some pale greys and of-whites were categorized as blue or green. Blue and green for the sake of color symbolism are interchangeable. InBuddhist doctrine, a blue Lotus is the symbol of victory of the spirit over the senses, of intelligence,wisdom and knowledge. It is always represented as a partially opened bud whose center is never visible.
• White (west, metal, tiger) denotes moral purity. It was the color of joy and festival at court during the Yuan Dynasty. In Buddhist doctrine, a white Lotus is the emblem of total mental purity and spiritual perfection. It is depicted with eight petals corresponding to the Noble Eightfold Path.
• Black (north, water, tortoise, snake) -
• Brown was the color of royalty during the Song Dynasty. Thirty to fifty shades were in recorded use during the Yuan Dynasty.

Gold and silver were used to denote greater and lesser wealth in both Mongolian textiles and Chinese jewelry.

Footnotes

1. The Art and History of Weaving, Susan C. Wylly, Georgia State University, sourced from the Silkroad Foundation (www.silk-road.com/art1/silkhistory.shtml
2. Chinese Folk Art: the Small Skills of Carving Insects, Nancy Zeng Berliner, Little, Brown and Co., Boston 1987
3. Silk and Religion: an Exploration of Material Life and the Thought of People AD 600-1200, Xinru Liu, Oxford University Press, Calcutta 199
4. Son of Heaven: Imperial Arts of China, Robert L. Thorp, (the Exhibition catalogue), Son of Heaven Press, Kyoto 1988

Sources

• The Art of Oriental Embroidery, Young Yang Chung, Ph.D., Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York
• Complete Book of Needlecraft, Ida Riley Duncan, Liveright Publishing Co., New York 1949
• Chinese Carpets and Rugs, Adolf Hackmack, Dover Publications, Inc., 1972
• Outlines of Chinese Symbolism and Art Motives, C.A.S. Williams, Charles E. Tuttle Co., Tokyo 1974
• Chinese Art: An Introductory Handbook to Painting, Sculpture, Ceramics, Textiles, Bronzes and Minor Arts, Fry, Binyon, Siren, Rackham, Kendrick and Winkworth, B.T. Batsford Ltd., London
• The Silk Industry of Ch’ing China, Shih Min-hsiung, translated by E-tu Zen Sun, Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan 1976
• www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/Tibet/Timagies/
• A Catalog of Medieval Embroidery Stitches, Airmid Godwin, Tournaments Illuminated No. 69, Berkely CA AS 23
• Competition Results: Fabulous Beasts, The Scribble, No. 23, AS 22